1) These equations are used to solve acoustic wave equations in anisotropic media. Numerically solving these differential equations, such as MTTFs, often require the usage of mesh-less methods. Advantages of using this class of differential equations include the incorporation of (*) memory effects. They are also called extraordinary differential equations irrespective of the number of independent variables. For ten points, name this class of differential equations containing terms of non-integer order.

Answer: Fractional differential equations

For ten points each, answer the following questions on the deleterious effects of partisan politics.

This phenomenon is reflected in the tendency of more radical candidates to win primaries and, subsequently, to win general elections.

Answer: Political polarization (prompt on polarization)

Alan Abramowitz argues that this phenomenon is a cause of the increasing rate of political polarization among both the elites and the public.

Answer: Partisan sorting

Occurrences of this situation are theorized to come from the interplay of policy interests and partisan abuse of supermajority institutions.

Answer: Political gridlock (accept deadlock or stalemate)

2) This author voiced his fondness for a short story by stating that he would "rather sacrifice five of the other stories [...] than this one". The essay "The Structure of Araby" posited that author deliberately "structured with rigorous precision upon a paradigm of medieval romance". This author removed chapter titles from one of his books so that it could be read independently of its (*) Homeric structure. Another one of his works is actually a later rewrite of a book abandoned in 1905. Complex, multilevel puns and wordplay featured prominently by this author who, for ten points, wrote Finnegan's Wake.

Answer: James Joyce (prompt on James or Joyce)

For ten points each, answer these questions about the Georgian era in literature.

French Revolution sympathizers significantly influenced this literary current in its infancy, which started to reject the Enlightenment.

Answer: Romanticism

In this Eleanor Burford book, one of the titular characters was portrayed as a young, romantic person yearning for the simplicity of commoner life.

Answer: The Prince and the Quakeress

In The Prince and the Quakeress, this future King of Great Britain and Ireland was featured in a legend surrounding his early life.

Answer: King George III (prompt on King George)

3) A 2023 large-scale study of over six million patients showed an increased risk of contracting this disease following COVID-19 infection. According to the retrogenesis hypothesis of this disease, demyelination and death of grey matter are its endpoints. A landmark research paper on the (*) amyloid hypothesis of this disease by Lesné was later found to be falsified. This disease can be subdivided into early onset and late onset. For ten points, name this neurodegenerative disease causing autonomy losses in old age.

Answer: Alzheimer's (disease)

For ten points each, answer these questions about legal procedure.

This procedure is used when one party to a case feels the law has been misapplied.

Answer: Appeal

Lee v. Porter, a case appealed before the Georgia Supreme Court, quoted the following line from Oliver Goldsmith's Retaliation: A Poem, as an analogy for being right but for the wrong reasons.

Answer: The coachman was tipsy

The tipsy coachman principle is an example of this legal principle allowing an appellate court to affirm a lower court decision made in error, provided an alternate basis exists.

Answer: Legal doctrine

4) This French painter's loss of access to the Fontainebleau Forest in 1874 marked a distinct change in his choice of subjects. Suzanne Valadon posed as a model for him before becoming a renowned artist in her own right. He also declared in 1883 that he "didn't know (*) how to paint or draw". Madame Georges Charpentier and her Children marked this painter's departure from impressionism. For ten points, name this French painter notable for producing thousands of paintings of everyday happiness.

Answer: (Pierre-Auguste) Renoir

For ten points each, answer these questions about development of communication skills in infants.

This treatment, based on introducing new and different food textures to infants, aims at treating this condition in infants.

Answer: Speech delay

Infants start making this noise at around two to three months old.

Answer: Cooing (accept coo)

Cooing is one of the key steps towards learning this skill in infants.

Answer: Speech (accept speaking and language)

5) This branch of Islam's ritual of tatbir was declared haram because it was tantamount to self-harm. The martyrdom of Husayn at the battle of Kerbala is commemorated by this Islamic branch on the Day of Ashura. This branch is further subdivided into (*) Twelvers, Zaydists and Ismailists. The conversion of the Safavid dynasty to this denomination created a political divide on top of a theological one in the Muslim world. For ten points, name the Islamic denomination that broke away from the rest of the oumma as a result of a succession dispute.

Answer: Shia Islam (accept Shi'ism; prompt on Twelvers, Zaydists or Ismailists before Twelvers, Zaydists and Ismailists)

For ten points each, answer these questions about early Modern Spanish literature.

In this era, a right dichotomy between traditional and Italianizing currents is inappropriate to understand its Spanish lyric poetry.

Answer: Renaissance

This current in Spanish literature is characterized by concern over the passage of time as well as loss of confidence in the Renaissance ideals.

Answer: Baroque

This Spanish writer was known in Baroque times for his ability to mass-produce plays.

Answer: Lope de Vega

6) In 2012, a research paper by Ma et al. demonstrated this state existed between photons that never co-existed in time. In quantum computing, the sender and receiver engage in superdense coding by pre-sharing a resource in this state. Bell's inequality proves that such a state (*) violates the principle of locality. The EPR paradox involves a pair of particles in a state which, for ten points, occurs when multiple objects cannot be described independently at the quantum level.

Answer: Quantum entanglement

For ten points each, answer the following questions about neurodegenerative diseases in literature.

This dark comedy young adult's protagonist embarks on a quest to defeat the Wizard of Reckoning while under the effects of the Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

Answer; Going Bovine

Still Alice is a novel where the titular character's life changes when she receives this diagnosis.

Answer: (Early-onset) Alzheimer's disease

This Arthur Miller play's protagonist is despondent with his life and appears to be slipping into senility.

Answer: Death of a Salesman

7) Canada boycotted major international hockey tournaments in the 1970s to protest this club employing professional players under the guise of enlistment in the Red Army. Paul Henderson score the game-winning goal in game eight of the 1972 Summit Series against a team whose core players came from this club. The Soviet Union used this team as a (*) diplomatic weapon during the Cold War across a wide variety of sports. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the constituent sections were privatized and sold to civilian interests. For ten points, name the central omnisports club ran by the Soviet Army.

Answer: CSKA Moscow

For ten points each, answer these questions about algebraic rings.

This class of Noetherian commutative ring behaves well with respect to the operation of completion and is also universally catenary.

Answer: Excellent ring

The only ring for which this value is one is the zero ring.

Answer: Characteristic

In this class of rings, the multiplication operation is commutative.

Answer: Commutative ring

8) Chemoreceptors can be either stimulated or inhibited under this treatment to achieve the desired outcome. Rational drug design underpins the development of new instances of this treatment by using understanding of biological targets. The bioavailability of (*) substances used in this treatment have a direct impact on its administration. Personalized medicine considers patient-specific factors to administer, for ten points, among others, this medical treatment based on pharmaceutical drugs.

Answer: Pharmacotherapy (do not accept chemotherapy)

9) Tribes of this people are theorized to have descended from almost every Central Asian origin. The Red Army perpetrated the Laghman Massacre in 1985 against a tribe of this people as retaliation for Mujahideen actions in the region. The Afghan monarchy was overthrown under a (*) nationalist agenda named after this ethnic group. This ethnic group that was referred to as Afghans prior to the Cold War. For ten points, name this ethnic group forming the core of the Taliban.

Answer: Pashtun

10) This British poet's contemporaries criticized a poem for distorting geography. T.S. Eliot argues, in a 1941 anthology, this poet wrote poetry without setting out to do so, making him a ballad writer. This poet's collection (*) The Five Nations refer to its four independent dominions and the United Kingdom itself. One of his most famous poems from this author is named after a major Myanmar city which was, at the time of release, the capital of Upper Burma. For ten points, name this poet who wrote extensively about British colonialism in south Asia.

Answer: Rudyard Kipling (the poem in the first and fourth clues was Mandalay)

11) Under this treaty, Russia was no longer the protector of Christians in Ottoman territory. The Nizam-I Cedid were military reforms instituted, with French assistance, in the Ottoman Empire because of the signing of this treaty. (*) The Ottoman loss of the fortress of Izmail led to the ratification of this treaty, which, for ten points, ended the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792?

Answer: Treaty of Iasi (or Jassy)

12) After this country's 2013 general election, allegations of electoral fraud from the CNRP led to nationwide protests. In the Middle Ages, the Khmer Empire was led out of what is today this country. (*) The Mekong River flows through the eastern half of this country, on whose confluence, for ten points, with the Tonle (TON-lay) Sap River sits its capital, Phnom Penh?

Answer: (Kingdom of) Cambodia (accept Kampuchea)

13) Anaplerotic and cataplerotic reactions add or remove intermediate reagents from this cycle. NADH, one of the intermediate products of this cycle, regulates the levels of several enzymes it requires. It is the endpoint of lipid and amino acid (*) metabolic pathways. This cycle occurs in living organisms that respire rather than ferment. For ten points, name this ten-step cycle yielding a single ATP molecule.

Answer: Krebs cycle (or citric acid cycle)

14) The Duke of Courland commissioned this architect to build the Jelgava Palace early in his career. St. Andrew's church in Kyiv was commissioned from this architect as part of a summer residence. A convent in St. Petersburg had a (*) bell tower canceled under Empress Catherine. The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg was designed by this architect who, for ten points, was the leading figure of Russian baroque architecture?

Answer: (Bartolomeo) Rastrelli

15) In 1641, the English Parliament passed the Triennial Act, which prevented this prerogative from being exercised except by its own consent. In 2008, Stephen Harper has exercised this prerogative to prevent the formation of a coalition government. Under Article II of the US Constitution, the President has the authority to perform this action when Congress (*) cannot agree on a time of adjournment. Pending bills require a special motion known as a carry-over motion to survive this prerogative which, for ten points, stops legislative work without dissolving legislatures.

Answer: Prorogation

16) A violation of this limit is thought to have caused the Champagne Supernova. The discovery of this limit led to a dispute between its namesake and Arthur Eddington. An ultra-relativistic approximation is used on a (*) fully degenerate electron gas to derive this limit, which arises when the electron degeneracy pressure is insufficient to prevent a white dwarf's gravitational collapse. For ten points, name the upper limit on stable white dwarves' masses.

Answer: Chandrasekhar Limit

17) It's not nuclear DNA, but a controversial theory links dysfunction in this type of DNA and aging. It has been reported that oxidative damage in this DNA is repaired more efficiently than DNA in the nucleus. However, because this DNA mutates faster than nuclear DNA (*), it saw uses in studying phylogeny of organisms. It was the first significant part of human DNA to be sequenced. For ten points, name the DNA passed on exclusively through the mother.

Answer: Mitochondrial DNA

18) Over Vitebsk, from this painter, was restituted by the Museum of Modern Art to its rightful owners during the COVID-19 pandemic. It depicts an oversized elderly beggar flying over the rooftops of this painter's hometown. The UN headquarters house one of his (*) stained glass windows, the Peace Window. A 1938 work from this painter, made in the height of the Holocaust, portrays a crucified Jewish man. For 10 points, name this Belarusian Jewish painter of I and the Village.

Answer: (Marc) Chagall

19) As the primary intermediary between Mongols and the rest of Christianity, King Hethum I of Armenia urged his peers to conclude these alliances. During the Fifth Crusade, rumors started circulating about this secret alliance being concluded with a Prester John from the Far East. Pope Innocent IV made the (*) first official attempt to conclude these alliances. The Mongols responded to repeated Christian requests for conversion as a condition to these alliances by asking for the submission of the Pope. For ten points, name this series of diplomatic failures aimed at containing Islam.

Answer: Franco-Mongol Alliances

20) Mollier charts plot this quantity against entropy. Refrigeration cycles are trapezoidal on phase diagrams plotting this quantity against pressure. This quantity remains constant when gases undergo the (*) throttling process. Exothermal reactions have a negative change in this quantity which, for ten points, is the sum of a system's internal energy and the product of pressure and volume.

Answer: Enthalpy