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Tendaguru Formation, Tanzania, 152 million years ago

In our modern day, East Africa's Tanzania is often a capricious land. Lush, vegetated rainforests around the coast are surrounded by far-reaching savannahs, often going months without rainfall. Even miles away, the continent's biggest mountain, Kilimanjaro, can be spotted towering over the horizon.

Though such an iconic feature is absent here in the Late Jurassic. At this time, the East African rift system has yet to form in the continent. Thus, the famous mountain will not form for nearly 140 million years. Additionally, the continent is not a solitary one, but rather the northeast of the southern landmass known as Gondwana.

Like modern Tanzania, this is a land where lush vegetation thrives. However, the rising orange light of dawn reveals the current state of the plant life and the area around it. Trees such as conifers, cypresses, araucarias, and ginkgoes are few and far between. Ferns and cycads are present around them, but are nearly as scarce along with withering into dull browns and beiges. Such parched shades nearly match the color of the scorched sand coating the ground. Some grains are occasionally whisked away by the wind, forming temporary clouds in the air.

Normally, water flowing from intercepting rivers would sustain this landscape. Unfortunately, as is with the rest of the Late Jurassic world, such a resource is heavily scarce during the dry season. The largest river especially has dried up, making it just a steep, empty ditch dug into the earth. Long, decayed bodies of fish lay in these canals, buzzing flies already being attracted to them in large swarms.

These insects begin to scatter as the shadow of something bigger wooshes over them. They're not the only organisms scavenging on the dead fish. Now, with the flies gone, something bigger and more alien is free to descend and feed.

Landing in the canal is a handful of Tendaguripterus. These are members of the pterosaur order of flying reptiles. With wingspans no more than 100 centimeters, they're rather small compared to their many relatives.

Like all pterosaurs, their bodies are streamlined and relatively robust with a thick torso. Meanwhile, their wings are thin and membranous, connecting to the tips of their forelimbs, the sides of their bodies, and even down to the knees of their hindlimbs. One thing that makes them different from many others in their famous order is a short, slender tail that tapers to a point. Their heads are large and elongated, ending in a prominent beak full of conical teeth. They also have a thin, bony ridge running from their forehead to the back of their skulls, the bright red coloration of which is also seen on their beak. In contrast, the rest of the leathery, scaled skin on their face is a dark, violet-blue. Their bodies are covered with taupe brown, hair-like pycnofibers while the exposed skin of their hands and feet is a light beige. The same skin color is seen in their wing membranes yet dominated by the color of their pycnofibers.

While the drying up of sources has left little space for aquatic life to live, it has created a new opportunity for the Tendaguripterus to feed. Like many other pterosaurs, these flyers primarily eat fish. Now, in a land with dwindling resources, they seize a rare chance to feed on the stranded remains.

Though their feeding isn't entirely peaceful. Some of the Tendaguripterus are highly aggressive with the ownership of their food. Thus, when another of their kind so much as comes close to the corpse they claim, the flyers will resort to biting at them. With resources as scarce as they are in the dry season, sharing is something most won't be willing to do.

Tendaguripterus aren't the only animals forced to survive through such conditions. One group manages to hold on here, despite being one of the far smaller ones to be found. It's a type of mammal called Brancatherulum. Like many others of their kind during this time, they're shrew-like in appearance and just as miniscule at only 6 inches long. Their compact, stream-lined bodies have strong yet relatively short limbs ending in sharp, curved claws. The tails of these tiny mammals are moderately long and taper to a point. Their heads are small and delicate, with a short, pointed snout that gently narrows toward the nose. Light brown fur coats their entire body, nearly blending them in with the dry dirt and sand around them.

In this parched land, the small size of these mammals helps serve as an advantage. By digging underground, the Brancatherelums have created a network of tunnels from which to travel through. In these shafts, they'll find burrowing insects, worms, plant roots, and even pockets of buried water. Some females have even taken to raising their litters of young in dens connected to these tunnels. The Brancatherelums may not be around today, but their survival strategy will be carried on to other small burrowing mammals well into our modern day.

In the meantime, our ancient ancestors live in the shadow of a larger, long-lasting dynasty. They've populated nearly every corner of the globe but still struggle in these conditions. Even so, they continue to thrive in this land, though just barely in some cases.

One species is nibbling at what's left of the rich greenery clinging to life on this scorched earth. They are Kentrosaurus, an African member of the famous stegosaur family of herbivorous dinosaurs. Their body plan is strongly similar to their other relatives such as the more well-known Stegosaurus, but have their own differences to make them unique. The backplates of Kentrosaurus are tall and thin, almost-blade-like in appearance. They also only cover the front half of their backs while the rear ends are covered in spikes that run down the rest of their body. A single spike can also be seen growing out of each shoulder, providing extra defense from predators. This adornment of gray, keratinous spikes has earned them the name that means "prickled lizard." Their scaly skin is primarily dark brown with diagonal, backward, reddish brown streaks mottled in and a sandy beige underbelly.

In this expanse of sand and dried plants, a group of seven Kentrosaurus combs the ground for edible vegetation. Two are 13-foot-long females, Nuru and Mansa, each escorting their own pair of 4-foot-long calves. Not only are the youngsters more minuscule compared to their mothers, but they also have proportionately larger eyes and smaller, more blunt spikes. The largest among them is Lazaro, a full-grown, 15-foot-long male weighing nearly two tons. As shown by his more faded colors, he's also the oldest among this small group.

Normally, Kentrosaurus live more solitary lifestyles, only gathering in groups when mating or raising their young. However, the dry season has forced these nomads together in the common struggle of searching for resources.

With the increasing lack of water running through the land, much of the plant life these herbivores rely on has begun to wilt away and die. While the deceased vegetation can be eaten, it won't be edible as if it were properly vitalized. Thus, even as they currently stand, they continue to forage the ground for any edible greenery. Sadly, such a search is like finding a needle in a haystack.

Amidst the plant life, one form of vegetation contains plentiful nutrition. The leaves of many here remain vitalized, having absorbed more of the remaining water from underground. Alone, the Kentrosaurus can't hope to reach them as they're more adapted for browsing much lower vegetation. One youngster even attempts to rear up temporarily just to reach one, low-resting branch, but to no avail. The one food source they have left is sadly out of their reach.

The same can't be said for one animal that feeds here. Biting onto the branches of the trees is a herd of over a dozen Dicraeosaurus. At up to 50 feet long, 9 feet tall, and weighing 10 tons, they easily outsize all the Kentrosaurus, Lazaro included. Compared to other long-neck sauropods, however, they're somewhat small. Such size is made up of robust, compact bodies with four, pillar-like legs that carry their weight with ease. Their tails are long and muscular, gradually tapering to a flexible point. By contrast, their necks are short and stout compared to other sauropods, with neural spines running along the back to give it a ridged appearance. The heads on these necks are proportionately small with short, blunt snouts. Mouths full of peg-like teeth help them in stripping vegetation off of higher plants around them, including trees. Their scaly skin is primarily a dark, yellowish brown with a cream underbelly.

Despite their smaller size compared to their gigantic relatives, the Dicraeosaurus are easily able to reach the taller greenery around them. They don't chew it as their jaws and teeth aren't built for it. Instead, they scrape their teeth across the top and bottom of each branch before swallowing it whole. The snapping of these branches is mixed with the low rumbles and groans of the sauropods.

Sometimes, not all of these bits of plant matter make it down their gullet. Much of it can often drop from the branches and onto the ground below. For the Dicraeosaurus, it's only a minor loss as they still strip the majority of the branches they bite onto.

These messes do, however, prove to be a benefit to the Kentrosaurus below. Now, the smaller herbivores can feed on plentiful greenery without the need to be much taller. Although, they still need to tread carefully when walking amongst the Dicraeosaurus. One wrong move can cause their spikes to poke the sauropods, causing them to leave.

The bits of leaves and other branch material are minuscule compared to the amount the larger Dicraeosaurus can ingest. Nonetheless, it's still enough to fill up the stomachs of Lazaro, Nuru, Mansa, and the Kentrosaurus calves. Now, they must shift their focus to finding an equally important resource, water.

This search will prove to be an even greater challenge. During the wet seasons, water would flow through the many braided canals dug into the earth here. In this much drier part of the year, all these canals are without any form of it. Some have been absorbed into the ground, but the Kentrosaurus would die of dehydration before reaching it through digging. They'd instead have to leave this parched patch of plant life and roam through the endless expanse of sand around them.

Even traveling the desert will itself prove a challenge with few landmarks existing among it that would aid in navigation. In the distance, however, Lazaro finds a sign of movement. It appears like a moving cloud of sandy dust, growing bigger as it reaches closer. As it begins to pass by the Kentrosaurus and Dicraeosaurus, their true form becomes clear amidst the clouds of parched earth.

This is a herd of over 20 Dysalotosaurus, small, bipedal herbivores measuring no more than 8 feet in length. Their strong, muscular legs allow them to run at astonishing speed across the scorched land. Each of these powerful hind limbs ends in broad, three-toed feet with sharp claws that provide traction when sprinting their environment. Four-fingered forelimbs are present as well, but are much shorter and less robust. Lightly built yet sturdy bodies sport a lean, streamlined shape, deep chest, and a long, stiffened tail. Small, triangular heads rest atop moderately long necks, possessing a sharp, pointed beak full of leaf-shaped teeth. Their scaly skin is primarily brownish green with brighter shades seen on the males. This is mixed in with a coat of primitive feathers of the same colors.

The Dysalotosaurus whoosh right by both the Kentrosaurus and Dicraeosaurus herds, leaving a cloud of sand in their path. Through it, one animal stares at the small herbivores as they continue into the distance, Lazaro. Like ostriches, Dysalotosaurus constantly run across the sands of this dry land. The only time they'll stop is when they find water, something that the elder Kentrosaurus is very well aware of.

Thus, Lazaro trudges forward before glancing back at the females and calves to let out a deep whoop at them. Nuru and Mensa glance at each other only for a second before urging their youngsters to follow them and the old male.

***

It's been nearly an hour since the small group of Kentrosaurus began venturing through the sand-littered desert. In that time, the patch of greenery they left had disappeared into the horizon behind them, along with any recognizable landmark. All of it has seemingly been replaced by a sea of sand, occasionally kicked up in clouds by wind and the footsteps of the herbivores. What isn't hidden is the sun above, its overwhelming heat bearing down on the young and adult Kentrosaurus alike.

Few things stick out among the sand, much of it being branches of buried dead trees. Occasionally, strong winds graze the earth, creating small clouds of parched ground. The cumulus of sand buries reveal skeletons of long-dead animals, stripped of any semblance of flesh or skin. Bones of Kentrosaurus can even be seen among them, a reminder of the herd's fate if they don't find water soon.

Such a resource is one they'll indeed need very soon. Each member of this loose herd is growing increasingly tired of the constant walking. Their movements have become slower, their feet dragging across the ground and their heads pointing more and more downward. Even their tongues constantly dart in and out as they continue to pant heavily. What little saliva remains in their mouths scarcely drips onto the ground below them.

Despite his exhaustion, Lazaro pulls his head upward, peering at the distance. Upon doing so, his heavy eyelids spring open. On the horizon, he sees what appears to be a watering hole. Around it, three bipedal animals have gathered, seemingly drinking. Their features are hard to make out, making it unknown whether they are Dysalotosaurus or something else entirely.

Nonetheless, Lazaro turns his head back and whoops at the rest of the herd. The other Kentrosaurus looked up to find the distant watering hole. Immediately, Nuru and Mensa turn to their calves whose trudging has turned into a brisk walk. They can't run, but their legs are carrying them as fast as their bodies will allow.

It only takes minutes for the Kentrosaurus to arrive near their destination. As they draw closer, the ground shifts into a dark brown. Parched sand shifts into squishy mud, clinging to the armored herbivores as they trudge through. Every step reveals small amounts of water, which no one in the herd has seen in a long time.

The Kentrosaurus peer up ahead but also gradually halt their travel. They see a massive expanse of water, dwarfing even Lazaro. The refreshing liquid within is a muddy blue with various small, gray stones in it and mud around the edges.

However, they also find only one Dysalotosaurus near it. It lays lifeless in the wet mud, bits of flesh still sticking to its bones. Feeding on it is a much larger animal, accompanied by two others of its kind. It deeply gurgles and rumbles as he bites and gulps chunks of meat.

These are not herbivorous Dysalotosaurus, but rather carnivores called Veterupristisaurus. They are the earliest members of a group of bipedal theropods called the carcharodontosaurs. By the time of the Cretaceous, they'll become ever more prominent throughout the world and become giants such as Acrocanthosaurus in the United States and Mapusaurus in Argentina.

The name of their group means "shark-toothed lizards" after the rows of serrated, shark-like teeth lining their jaws. Their skulls are large and elongated but also thin and light-weight, tapering into a slightly-pointed snout. Subtle, horn-like ridges grow from above their amber, forward-facing eyes. These heads and their solid, powerful bodies are balanced by long, muscular tails. Tall vertebrae create a subtle ridge that runs along their necks, backs, and tails. Lengthy, robust legs connected to somewhat streamlined torsos lift their forms off the ground. The forelimbs are shorter, yet strong, ending in three fingers tipped with sharp claws. Their scaly skin is primarily a dusty brown with a light gray underbelly.

At 26 feet in length and weighing nearly two tons, the Veterupristisaurus are smaller than their much colossal descendants. Despite this, they're still large enough to be a threat to the Kentrosaurus, towering over them as they begin circling them. Their feet squish into the muddy ground as their low grumbles begin to be felt in the bones of their armored prey.

In response, Lazaro, Nuru, and Mensa begin to form a circle around the calves. The adults also turn around, waving their spiked tails back and forth. This effectively creates a protective barrier of moving spikes around the youngsters.

Such protective measures don't stop the predators from stalking around the Kentrosaurus, scanning for any gap. One of the Veterupristisaurus spots one youngster back close to the edge of the circle. It snaps its jaws toward it, causing the little one to jump and retreat.

Immediately, Nuru swings her tail at the predator. The strike forces the carnivore backward, hissing in pain. It looks back to the Kentrosaurus, revealing a bleeding gash on the side of its snout. The pack resumes their stalking, continuously circling the herbivores.

Suddenly, the predators stop. Thunderous footsteps begin to echo from the distance. With their volume increasing with every second, both Kentrosaurus and Veterupristisaurus alike turn to the horizon, finding the source of such quakes.

At first, they appear as mysterious, tall figures in the distance. Moving closer and closer reveals them to be an entirely different animal, the largest to be seen in Africa at this time. It's a creature whose creaking groans and booming rumbles can be heard even from miles away.

This is a herd of seven Giraffatitans. They are large sauropods that roam the land of Late Jurassic Tanzania. Once, they were considered to be an African species of North America's Brachiosaurus due to their striking similarities. Eventually, studies from modern scientists would recognize the Giraffatitan as a separate animal.

Four, columnar legs lift its body off the ground, with the front ones being taller than the rear. Each one ends in a round foot with short, blunt toes equipped with large keratinous nails. Their massive, barrel-shaped bodies have deep, broad torsos and long, relatively slender tails that narrow to a point. Tall, straight-position necks, hold their heads 50 feet off of the ground, blocking the sun behind them. These heads are comparatively small, having long, boxy snouts, large, forward-facing eyes, and mouths filled with peg-like teeth. Their skin is primarily an earthy gray, with dull orange all across the underside of the five females and a brighter shade seen on the two males.

The first to arrive near the watering hole is the eldest male. As it grows close, even the old Giraffatitan casts a massive shadow over everything below him. The mud depresses under the weight of his 50-ton body.

With another, much larger animal now present, the Veterupristisaurus direct their attention to the Giraffatitan. They begin hissing and growling at it, none of which deter the giant's approach. The rest of the herd arrives as well, joining their elders in groaning and breathily hissing at the carnivores.

For the pack, a single Giraffatitan is already enough of a challenge to face. Taking on an entire would only end in death for the Veterupristisaurus. Outsized and outnumbered, the predators walk away, venturing into the vast desert in search of another watering hole to claim as their own.

With the Veterupristisaurus now absent, the Kentrosaurus are now free to approach the watering hole. For the first time in a long while, Lazaro, Nuru, Menza, and the calves will receive the refreshing taste of water. Their struggles have come to an end... or so they seem.

Lazaro is the first to approach, only to abruptly stop. He flinches in the wake of a large foot stomping down in front of him, splashing wet mud all over him. The eldest Kentrosaurus peers upward to find a Giraffatitan staring down at him, greeting him with breathy, hostile hissing. More of this sound appears from another titan next to him, along with a swing of its head in his direction. Although only a mock attack, it's enough to make Lazaro step away.

The elder Kentrosaurus soon finds the females and calves attempting to access the watering hole. They too are repelled by the aggressive giants, with one youngster even being rolled away by one Giraffatitan's head swing. Even the tails of the titans are swinging back and forth, discouraging the Kentrosaurus from entering.

There may not be any more carnivores, but Lazaro and the rest of his kind are unwelcome. They may have a formidable defense, but the size of even one Giraffatitan is enough to trump anything the stegosaurs could do. Now, the watering hole belongs to the giants. All the Kentrosaurus can do now is wait until it's available again.

While here, the Giraffatitans do more than just drink massive gallons worth from the watering hole. One activity they do is swallowing small stones. Sauropods' jaws and teeth typically aren't built for chewing, thus they need extra assistance for digesting plant matter. This comes in the form of rocks which they willingly ingest. Doing so turns them into gastroliths, or "stomach stones," which will grind up any devoured vegetation much better than their stomach acid could alone. Over time, these rocks are lost during excretion, requiring sauropods like Giraffatitan to replace them regularly. Similar behavior is seen in their closest modern relatives such as birds and crocodilians, but also seals and sea lions despite no relation.

Another equally important action they partake in is mud baths. Dinosaurs are generally warm-blooded animals, like mammals. Thus, they are more than capable of regulating their body temperature on their own. Nevertheless, the Giraffatitans relish in cooling themselves off in the wet earth. The mud coats and clings to their skin as they lay down, roll, and rub themselves in it. Sprinkles of it even splash onto the nearby Kentrosaurus, despite their considerable distance from the titans.

The Giraffatitans stay for minutes on end, consuming much of the precious water, swallowing countless stones, and moving around tons of mud from bathing in it. Soon, they step away from the watering hole. Having finished, they march back toward the desert from which they arrived.

In their short time here, the watering hole had practically been transformed. Not only is the initial body of water greatly drained, but many of the small rocks have disappeared, too.

Even so, the actions of the giants had inadvertently uncovered more of this vital resource. From the many holes left in the moist ground, water has begun to rise. Whether intentionally or not, the Giraffatitans' mud bath has unearthed more of the precious liquid.

This will also combine well with another gift left by the large sauropods: dung. Piles of this putrid waste are scattered amongst the mud, sometimes blending in with it. They may be revolting to most around them, but these massive mounds of fecal matter are still important to this watering hole. Inside them are seeds from the various tall plants that had been eaten by the Giraffatitans. Hitching a ride in the stomachs of the sauropods, they are effectively spread to any part of the land where the giants defecate. Now that they're in the mud, the water and earth will one day allow the seeds to grow into new plants which in turn will become food for countless herbivores. The rest of the digested matter in the excrement will also act as a natural fertilizer, further aiding in the growth of future vegetation.

Finally, the Kentrosaurs have the watering hole to themselves. They welcome the opportunity to drink any bit of it they can ingest at a time. The calves also play and bathe in the mud, though not as destructive as the giants did before them.

Water is the lifeblood of the natural world. Therefore, its absence is one that never goes unnoticed when the dry season comes around. The ensuing conditions encourage animals to find new ways to survive and adapt, even ones that have since become extinct. Often this can lead to struggle and competition between species, but it can also lead to benefits later down the line. Such a loop of interactions just ensures that life always finds a way to continue, even in the shadow of drought.

In loving memory of Larry Dow

I will always love and miss you. It was a great privilege to have you as a grandpa.