LEXICOLOGY
Lecture I: INTRODUCTION
I. LEXICOLOGY
+ (Gr. 'lexis' = word +'logos'= learning )
- a science / study which deals with words, morphemes and word groups.
- a science which studies and describes systematically the vocabulary of a given language.
+ consists of 5 essential branches :
1. Word structure and formation
2. Semiology (semantic structure of a word)
3. Phraseology (set expressions, word combinations, idioms, proverbs, etc.).
4. Etymology (history and origin of words)
5. Lexicography (dictionary compiling)
+ Considered from different angles, it falls into:
1. General lexicology
2. Special lexicology
3. Historical lexicology (diachronic aspect)
4. Descriptive lexicology (synchronic aspect)
II. LEXICOLOGY IN RELATION TO
+ phonology (stress and juncture; phoneme and morpheme; homonyms)
+ grammar(gram.meaning+lexical meaning; gram.functions, word structure + formation)
+ stylistics (stylistic aspect, synonyms, antonyms)
III. SOME NOTIONS
+ Paradigm and syntagm
- Paradigm - ordered series of forms / comparable elements at a particular place in the structure. They are formed by means of inflections / endings.
student go
students goes
student's went
students' gone
- Syntagm - word / phrase forming a syntactic unit or elements forming serial structures at a given level in a linear stretch of writing.
SVA Mary is in the garden.
SVC Mary is kind.
SVO Mary has got a new bicycle.
SVOA Mary put the place on the table.
SVOC John thought Mary exceptionally clever.
SVOO Mary gave me expensive presents.
SV(A) Mary laughed (heartily).
Lecture II: WORD STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
I. Word structure
+ Word: an independent language unit which has both sound and spelling forms and is capable to form a sentence by itself.
+ Morphemes:- occur in speech as parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme.
-are the smallest indivisible meaningful language unit- (cf. phonemes).
Morpheme
Root M Affixal M( bound )
free M bound M gram/functional M derivational M
boy terrible
table terror (inflections) prefix infix suffix
terrorize girl open unkind salesman kindly
include girls opens mislead fisherman leader
exclude sportsman
conclude washerwoman
doomsday
Word
Simple Derived Compound
(R) ( R+A ) ( R+R )
heart hearty sweetheart
II. Word formation
AFFIXATION
Affixation: formation of words by adding affixes to roots
prefixation + suffixation
- productive (help to build new words) affixes.
- non- productive (do not help to build new words) affixes.
1. Prefixation
Classification of prefixes:
Prefixes Meaning Examples
un-, dis- negative unhappy .unlucky, uneven;dishonest, disunion,
non-, il- disaffection; non-stop, non-party, nonsense
im-, in-, illiterate, illegal, illogical; impossible, improper
ir- inactive, inaccurate, incapable; irregular
irrational, irresponsible.
un-, dis-, reversal, unlock,undo,unpack;disagree,disappear,
de-, re- repetition decentralize, demobilize, decontaminate; rewrite
anti-, opposite, review, retell; antiwar, antiaircraft, antithesis
counter- meaning counter-attack,counter-weight,counter-revolution
anti-,ante relationship antechamber, anticipate; ex-president, ex- champion
ex- fore-, in time, ex-manager; foresee, forecast, forefront
pre-, pre-historic,pre-war, precondition; postwar
post- post-graduate, postposition;
up-, sub- place upstairs, upgrade, uplift; subdivision, submarine,
trans- subtitle; transplant, transatlantic, transcontinental
inter-, manner international, interlace, interrelation, extraordinary
extra-, extramural, extranuclear, withstand, withdraw
with-, co- co-exist, cooperate, co-chairman; endanger
en-, em- enable, enclose, embed, empower, emplacement;
super-, degree superman, supernatural, supersonic;
over-, overflow, overcoat, oversleep; outweigh,
out", outcast, out-distance; undergrowth,
under-, underestimate, undersized; ultraviolet,
ultra ultramodern, ultraradical; polysyllabic,
poly-,bi- quantity polysemantic; bicycle, bilateral,
dis-,duo- dissyllable; duodecimal, duologue,
,mono- state monologue, monosyllabic, monolingual.
a-, evaluation awake, afresh, anew, aloud, alike, alone,
mis- afar, misunderstand, mislead, misbehave
+ Productive and non-productive prefixes
Non-productive a- : arise, apathy, anonymous; amphi-( on,both): amphitheatre, amphibious; ab-(from, away): abnormal, abstain; ad-(to, toward): admit, admonish; ante-anti-: antechamber, anticipate; con-, co-(with, together): confrontation, cooperate; de-
( down, away): decrease, depart; dis-, di-: disyllable, diphthong; duo- : duodecimal; en-, em- (in, make) :enact, encircle, embark, embargo; fore-: forearm, foretell; forth-:forthcoming, forthright; in-: inmate, insight; on-, (onset, onslaught), per- (thoroughly): perfect, persuade; poly-: polysyllable, polyglot; re-: retract, return; with- withstand, withdraw
+ Living (still in use) and dead (out of use) prefixes
Dead prefixes : a- :aware, awaken, ashamed; circum-(around): circumstance, circumference; op- (against): opposite, oppress
Exercises on Prefixes
I.Which negative adjective fits each of the following definition ?
1. …………………. not having a husband or wife.
2. …………………. means impossible to eat
3. …………………. means unable to read and write.
4. …………………..means not having a job.
5 …………………...means fair in giving judgement, not favouring one side.
6 …………………...means unable to be replaced.
II. Answer the following questions
1. What kind of oven cooks things particularly fast ?
2. What kind of drug can help somebody with an infection ?
3. What kind of company has branches in many countries ?
4. How does a passenger aeroplane normally fly ?
5. What is a student who is studying for a second degree ?
6. What means "underground railway in the US " and " underground passage in the UK" ?
III.Rewrite the following sentences, using prefixes.
1 He's in favour of the American approach.
2. The BBC tried to avoid pronouncing foreign words incorrectly .
3. Most people say they have to work too hard but are paid too little.
4. He dated his cheque with a date that was late than the real date .
5. She's still on good terms with the man who used to be her husband.
6. He made so many mistakes in the letter that he had to write it again.
IV. Use your knowledge of prefixes to write definitions of the underlined words
Although Jim is an ex-soldier, he's only semi-literate. When he tries to write a letter , he misspells half the words and his wife has to rewrite it for him . His wife used to work in a sub-department of the post office where her main job was redirecting mail . Jim's very pro-army but he over-emphasizes its good points. His wife, on the other hand, is rather anti-army and she undervalues its positive aspects.
V.Which word is the odd one out in each set and why ?
1, legible, loyal, legal, legitimate
2, insert, internal, inedible, income
3, uncomfortable ,unlock ,unfold, unzip
4, extract, ex-wife, ex- communicative, exhale
5, worship, kinship,friendship, partnership
VI arch- (chief, main, highest-ranking) out- (more, better etc. than) mal- (badly, wrongly) pseudo- (false, pretended)
Put each of the above prefixes in its correct space in the sentences below.
(a) In my opinion this book is just …….-intellectual rubbish.
(b) Although he was older than his wife, he ……………..lived her by ten years.
(c) Priests are not often ambitious men, but he had set his heart on becoming ……………….bishop.
(d) The launch of the space-rocket was delayed by a ………. function in the fuel system.
(e) At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Britain's ……..-enemy was France.
(f) He completely ………. boxed his opponent and knocked him out in the seventh round.
(g) Children who grow up in time of war are more likely to be …….adjusted than other children.
(h) He uses …….....-scientific language to persuade his readers.
(i) These squalid, dark, cramped, ………odorous rooms are homes towhole families of people.
(j) She was the finest dancer in the country. She ……..shone all the others.
VII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases
(a) a pseudonym (e) malnutrition
(b) arch-rivals (f) pseudo-religious
(c) maladministration (g) an arch-villain
(d) out-size clothes (h) to outstay your welcome
VIII. a- (not, without) hyper- (extremely, too) fore- (before, in front of) neo- (new, revived)
(a) The British Museum was built in the middle of the last century in the ……………-classical style popular at that time
(b) Who can ………..tell what the future holds for us?
(c) It's no use asking him about the political system or the parties. He didn’t know or care. He's completely ………..political
(d) It's quite normal to complain if you think something is wrong, but I do feel that you are sometimes ……….critical.
(e) The authorities are concerned at the activities of a small ………-Nazi movement.
(f) You must be very careful what you say about her poems. She's a…….sensitive person.
(g) She didn’t know the difference between right and wrong She had no conscience of all. She was simply ……….moral
(h) The police claimed that she had some ……….knowledge of the murder attempt and could have prevented it
(i) He was standing in the middle, in the ……….ground of the picture.
(j) Young children can sometimes be ………..active, which means that they can’t keep still.
IX Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) neo-imperiatism (e) hypertension
(b) an atheist (f) a foregone conclusion
(c) a foretaste (g) an asymmetrical shape
(d) a hypermarket (h) a neo-Fascist
X uni-, mono- (one) duo-, bi- (two) tri- (three) quad-, quart- (four) pent-, quin- (five) sex- (six) sept- (seven) oct- (eight) non- (nine) dec- (ten) cent- (hundred)
Complete the words in the passage below
George Willis was born in 1900 and was too young to go into uni……… in the First World War, which took place in the second dec……… of the cent……. . Instead he finished his schooling and went to university. Like most Oxford colleges, his college was built round a quad…….. and a photograph of him there shows him wearing a mono……. in his eye, one of his many eccentricities. He rode a tri…….., declaring it to be safer and more stable than a bi……. . His subject was zoology. Initially he studied bi………, but soon tired of two-legged creatures and took an interest in quad…….., developing a special affection tor elephants. However, all animal life fascinated him and he was often to be seen in the Oxfordshire countryside, observing wildlife through his bi…….. or setting up his tri…….. to record it in photographs. Marine creatures also attracted him, especially, for some reason, the oct…….. . He was also creative in such diverse fields as engineering (he proposed a scheme for mono……….. transport in London) and music (he formed a jazz sex…….., which later became a quin…….. when the drummer joined the navy, a quar…….. when the violinist was run over by a bus and a tri……… when the trombonist was imprisoned for bi…….). He travelled widely and spoke French so well that he was completely bi……… . He was a fine sportsman and won many prizes in the pent……. . In 1972, although by this time a sept………, he wrote his first play, a strange piece which consisted of a due…….. between Shakespeare and Churchill. He is still active and talkative, although conversations with him tend to be mono……. . He talks and others listen. Always optimistic, he looks forward to continuing his busy
lite as a non…….. and to becoming a cent……… . He lives with his wife, a lively oct………, and has two sons and a daughter, whose birth as tri…… in 1927 he describes as the happiest event in his eventful life.
XI Explain the meanings of the following words.
(a) bicentenary (b) pentagon (c) centenary (d) tricolour
(e) monotonous (f) decathlon (g) sexagenarian (h) quintuplets
(i) bisect (j) cent (k) biplane (l) bicameral
(in) unicycle (n) quadruplets (o) unicorn
2. Suffixation
Classification of suffixes :
a. According to the parts of speech
+ Noun-forming suffixes
-age (state,place,progress,collectiveness) :village,blockage;
-al,-ial (act) :refusal,burial;
-ance,-ence (act, state, quality, condition)assistance, appearance, existence, audience;
-an,-ian (agent, follower, resident) :republican, guardian, Cambodian;
-ant,-ent (agent) :assistant, student;
-ancy,-ency (state): vacancy, emergency;
-ard (depreciatory) :drunkard, coward;
-ate (agent, function) :advocate, magistrate;
-asm,-ast (state, condition, agent) :enthusiasm, enthusiast;
-cy (state, condition, office) :bankruptcy, agency;
-dom (state, condition, collectiveness) :freedom, kingdom;
-er,-or(agent, instrument, resident) :teacher, cooker, villager, visitor;
-ee,-ey,-y (receiver/object/result of action) :employee, attomey, inquiry;
-eer (person,profession) :pioneer, engineer;
-ess (feminine) :actress, tigress;
-eur (person) : amateur;
-hood (state, condition) :childhood, neighbourhood;
-ice (act, quality, condition) :service, justice;
-ics (art, study, science) :phonetics, linguistics;
-ie,-y (diminutive) :birdie, granny
-ier (agent) -.cashier,
-ing (art, fact, activity) : learning, feeling;
-ion,-tion (condition, state, result, act) :tension, organization, discussion;
-ism,-ist (doctrine, theory, system, result, follower, specialist) :socialism, scientist;
-ity (state) :clarity, similarity;
-let (small, young) :booklet, piglet;
-ling (diminutive) :seedling, duckling;
-ment (act, state, progress, result, manner) :statement, agreement, improvement;
-mony (state, condition, result) :lestimony, ceremony;
-ness (state, quality, condition, degree) goodness, darkness, seriousness;
-ology (study, system) :biology, psychology;
-or,-our (condition, quality) :error, favour;
-ry (state, condition, collectiveness) :machinery .poetry;
-ship(state, condition, quality, office, profession) :friendship, citizenship;
-ster (agent, depreciatory) :youngster, gangster;
-th (state, quality) strength, length;
-tude (state, quality) :latitude, attitude;
-ty (quality, state, condition) : liberty, poverty;
-ure (act, process, state, result, rank) :pleasure, pressure;
+adjective- forming suffixes
-able, -ible (capable of, characterised by quality) :fashionable, possible;
-al, -ar, -ic, -ile (capable of, of the nature of, belonging to) :global, classical, circular, popular; necessary, secondary; domestic, historic; mobile, infantile;
"an, -ean (originated from, belonging to) :Roman, European;
-ent ,-ant (quality) :independent, different;important,distant;
-ese (resident) :Vietnamese, Chinese;
-fold (having a specified number of): twofold, tenfold;
-ish (having a small degree of like) :reddish, foolish;
-vie (related to, causing) :active, effective;
-less (without, lacking, unable) :useless, harmless;
-ful (full of, characterised by): hopeful, careful;
-like (resembling) :businesslike, comradelike;
-ly (quality, character):friendly, womanly, lovely, lively, silly, sickly, motherly, cowardly, costly;
-ous (causing, characterised by) :glorious, dangerous;
-some (causing, tending to) :troublesome, lonesome;
-ward (in the direction of) :sideward, northward;
-y( characterised by) :mighty, needy, hearty, lofty;
+ Numeral-forming suffixes
-teen (fifteen), -th (fourth), -ty (sixty)
+ Verb -forming suffixes
-ate (facilitate), -fy (horrify), -en (brighten), -ize (specialize),
vaccinate simplify darken legalize
liberate classify shorten fertilize
+ Adverb -forming suffixes
-ly (coldly), -ward (s) (upward (s), -wise (likewise), -long (sidelong), -way(s) (crossways) headlong
b. According to the lexico-grammatical meaning
+ Abstract nouns : -age, - ance, - ence, -ancy, -ency, -ation, -doom, -cy, -hood, -ing,
-ion, -tion, -ism, -ice, -merit, -ness, -ship, -th, -ty
+ Personal nouns: -ant,-an, -ian, -ee, -ent, -er, -ier, -ist, -ey,eer
+ Feminine nouns: actress, heroine, suffragette, testatrix
+ Derogatory suffixes: drunkard, underling, gangster, simpleton
+ Diminutive suffixes: auntie, hanky, chicken, booklet
c. Productive and non-productive suffixes:
Non-productive: -ade, -age, -ance, -ant, -ar, -ard, -ate, -cy, -dom, -en, -eer, -ese, - ence, -ean, -fy, -hood, -ier, -ics, -me, -ic, -ian, -ice, -ive, -long, -ly, -ment, -or, -ster,
-th, -tude, -ward(s), -wise, -y
+ Living and dead suffixes :
Dead suffixes : -t (flight, height), -d (deed), -lock (wedlock)
d. Polysemantic suffixes (a great number)
-er: doer of the action : speaker, player, teacher
person living in a certain place: villager, Londoner
device, tool or instrument: eraser, cooker, boiler, starter, screwdriver
-y : characterized by : windy, rainy
full of, composed of: watery, muddy, sandy, starry
intimate : daddy, mummy, dolly
resembling : bushy, inky, rosy
-ment: state, quality, condition: amazement
action: arrangement
process, manner, government, development
continuance:
Exercises on suffixes
I. Deduce the meaning of the following derivatives from the meanings of their constituents. Explain your deduction. What are the meanings of the affixes in the words under examination?
reddish, a. ………………………………………………………………………..
overwrite, v. ……………………………………………………………………..
irregular, a………………………………………………………………………...
illegal, a…………………………………………………………………………..
retype,v. ………………………………………………………………………….
old-womanish, a. …………………………………………………………………
disrespectable, a. …………………………………………………………………
inexpensive, a. …………………………………………………………………..
unladylike, a. …………………………………………………………………….
disorganise, v…………………………………………………………………….
renew, v. ………………………………………………………………………….
eatable, a. ………………………………………………………………………..
overdress, v. ……………………………………………………………………...
disaffection, n…………………………………………………………………….
snobbish, a……………………………………………………………………….
handful, n. …………………………………………………………… …………
tallish, a…………………………………………………………………………..
sandy, a. …………………………………………………………………………
breakable, a………………………………………………………………………
II. Explain the difference between the meanings of the following words produced from the same root by means of different affixes. Translate the words into Vietnamese.
watery - waterish, ……………………………………………………………
embarrassed - embarrassing. …………………………………………………
manly- mannish, ……………………………………………………………
colorful - colored, ……………………………………………………………
distressed -distressing, ………………………………………………………
respected-respectful-respectable………………………………………………
exhausting- exhausted, ………………………………………………………
bored -boring, ………………………………………………………………..
touchy - touched - touching. …………………………………………………
III -phobia (fear or hatred of) -cide (killer, killing) -gamy (marriage)
Put each of the above suffixes in its correct place in the sentences below.
(a) Those rose-bushes need protection. Spray them with insecti……. .
(b) He gets very tense and nervous in enclosed spaces like lifts and the underground. He suffers from claustro……. .
(c) The custom of having more than one wife or husband is known as ‘poly……’
(d) Some people, and some animals, are terrified of water. This aversion is known as aqua……. .
(e) His problems overwhelmed him and he finally comitted sui…… .
(f) When he was arrested and charged with bi…….., both his wives stood by him.
(g) His Anglo……. comes from some bad experiences he had in England.
(h) Following the man's death, his wife was charged with homi……. .
IV Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) germicide (d) a monogamous society
(b) xenophobia (e) tratricide
(c) patricide (f) agoraphobia
V -maniac (obsessed person) -phile (lover of) -monger (dealer in)
Instructions as above.
(a) A person who makes and exploits war is called a war…….. .
(b) He has always been a biblio……… and has amassed a vast collection of books over the years.
(c) He has a shop selling pots and pans, tools and other metal goods.He's an iron…. .
(d) He's unbelievably self-centred and arrogant. He's a complete ego…….. .
(e) She loved the year she spent in Italy and has been an Italo…….. ever since.
(f) Some journalists are perfectly honest and well-meaning but she just makes a profit from gossip and rumour. She’s just a cheap scandal.…….. .
(g) A klepto……. is a person who has a compulsive desire to steal.
(h) His fondness for drink became an addiction, and his doctor says he's now a dipso……… .
VI Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases
(a) a pyromaniac (d) an Anglophile
(b)Francophilia (e) a mania
(a) a fishmonger (f) a film maniac
VII -worthy (deserving, fit for) -like (similar to) -most (furthest)
(a) To me, at 14, the film-stars I saw at my local cinema were god…….. creatures. (b) John O'Groats in Scotland is the northern…….. town in mainland Britain.
(c) We are pleased to present you with this award for your praise……. work among the poor of this city.
(d) In the old days it was not considered lady……… for a woman to smoke in public, if at all.
(e) Architecture during that period was very boring. Almost every building was a box-___ structure, with no variation or decoration to please the eye.
(f) We're looking for an honest, reliable, trust........ person to handle our legal affairs.
(g) He betrayed the inner……. secrets of his country's government to the enemy.
(h) A small accident like that won't appear in the papers. It isn't news……. enough.
VIII Explain the meanings of the following phrases.
(a) a business-like manner (d) a noteworthy comment
(b) his foremost thought (e) a life-like statue
(c) a roadworthy car (f) outermost defences
IX -wards(in the direction of) -esque (like, in the manner of) -some (causing, making)
(a) I have a backache which is a bit trouble………. at times.
(b) He cast his eyes heaven……….. as if imploring God for help or pity.
(c) It's very pictur……… here, with the trees attractively framing the view of the river.
(d) From Colombia we went south…….. through Equador, Peru and Bolivia to Argentina.
(e) Man's first view of the earth from space was an awe…… sight.
(f) The back garden faces sea……. so you can always be sure of a pleasant view.
(g) I'm afraid I find her constant chatter gets a bit weari.......... after a while.
(h) The architecture here is rather Roman……. . Look at the round arches and thick walls.
X Explain the meanings of the following phrases
(a) quarrelsome boys (d) a downward movement
(b) outwardly confident (e) a tiresome person
(c) a statuesque figure (f) a Kafkaesque novel
XI -scape (scenery) -scope (means of observing) -ette, -let, -ling (small)
(a) Even the most powerful tele…….. does not make the smallest stars visible.
(b) I watched a drop…… of rain move slowly down the window.
(c) His most famous sea…. was painted in 1879 and hangs in the National Gallery.
(d) A gos…….. is a young goose.
(e) The award takes the form of a silver statu……. of the Greek god, Adonis.
(f) The first television picture of the hitherto mysterious moon……. was the most dramatic sight I have ever seen.
(g) His home is in the country and he's wondering if he can afford to buy a flat…. in London too.
(h) The crew of a submarine just below the surface can see what is happening above by looking through the peri…… .
(i) Travelling by car, you have the chance to stop in the countryside to admire the land……… .
XII Explain the meanings of the following words and phrases.
(a) a microscopic insect (d) a kitchenette
(b) a piglet (e) a marvellous cloudscape
(c) a duckling (f) a booklet
XIII -ist
Make sentences by connecting each person on the left below with the correct phrase on the right.
(a) An ornihologist
(b) A philatelist
(c) A feminist
(d) A numismatist
(e) A philanthropist
(f) A pathologist
(g) A linguist
(h) A dramatist
(i) A seismologist
(j) A manicurist
(k) A pharmacist
(l) A meteorologist
(m) An arsonist
(n) A taxidermist
(o) A misogynist
(p) A somnambulist
(q) A Sinologist
(r) A chiropodist
(s) A graphologist
…….speaks many languages.
……performs post-mortems on dead bodies.
……is interested in birds.
……writes plays.
……sets fire to property.
……is interested in stamps
……stuffs dead animals.
……is interested in coins,
……believes in equal rights for women,
……hates women.
……is an expert on China.
……gives targe amounts of money to charity.
……is an expert on earthquakes
……makes up medicines.
……looks after people's feet.
……looks after people's hands and fingernails.
……is a handwriting expert.
……studies the weather.
……walks in his or her sleep.
III. WORD COMPOSITION
1. Definition :
A compound word (compound) consists of at least two root morphemes. The components of a compound may be either simple words, derived words or even other compound words, one of which has inflections.
e.g.(n) blackboards, store-keepers, mothers-in-law, passers-by
(v) handwash, handwashes, handwashing, handwashed
(adj) heart-breaking, heart-broken, middle-aged, first-rate
(adv) meantime, midway, wherever
(pr) somebody, anything, whoever
2. Criteria
a. Phonological criterion
+ Most of compounds have a stress on the first component
e.g. 'classroom, 'greenhouse, "boy-friend, to 'whitewash, to'bottlefeed, "snub- nosed, 'forget-me-not, 'mothers-in-law, 'passer-by, 'dancing-girl
cf. free word groups : a green 'house, a dancing 'girl
e.g. A : Look at that beautiful dancing 'girl.
B : She's a well-known 'dancing-girl.
If you don't drive the 'bluebottle away, I will throw the blue 'bottle on your face .
+ Some compounds have double stress (even stress)
eg. 'good'egg, 'bread-and-' butter, 'gray-'green, 'easy'going, 'happy-go-'lucky, 'new-'born, "self-'control, 'All- 'Fools- 'Day, 'passenger 'train, 'merry-go- 'round.
+ Stress helps to differentiate the meaning
e.g. 'over-work (viÖc lµm thªm), 'over-'work (viÖc qu¸ søc)
'bookcase (tñ/gi¸ s¸ch), 'book'case (b×a bäc s¸ch)
,man'kind (loµi ngêi), 'mankind (nam giíi, ®µn «ng)
b. Criterion of the structural integrity
Compounds are indivisible and it is impossible to insert any other words . Endings are added to the whole word.
e.g. black-markets, blackbirds, blackmail, blacklist, blacklegs, red-tape, fair- haired
c. Criterion of semantic integrity
The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, i.e. the meaning of the whole compound is not a mere sum of the meanings of its components like in a free word group.
e.g. dirty work (dishonorable proceedings)
fuss-pot (person easily excited and nervous about trifles)
slow-coach (person who thinks and acts slowly)
chatterbox (person who talks a great deal without saying anything important)
blue-stocking woman (woman who affects literary tastes and learning)
lip-service (superficial service from the lips only)
lip-reading (interpretation of the motion of the lips)
lipstick (a stick of cosmetics for redding the lips)
d. Graphic (spelling) criterion
A compound can be spelt in three ways : with a hyphen between two components, with break and without break.
e.g. air-line, air line, airline
match-box, match box, matchbox
Few compounds have connective elements (infixes).
e.g. statesman, handicraft, savings-bank, goods-train, Anglo-Saxon
3. Classification
a. Structural classification
+ According to the structure of the immediate components
- simple stems : handbag, film-star
- derived stems : skyscraper, long-legged, ill-mannered, teenager
- abbreviated stems : maths -teacher, H-bomb, X-ray
- at least one compound stem: aircraftcarrier, waste paper basket
- v + adv : break-down, cut-back
+ According to the part of speech
- compound nouns : girlfriend, greengrocer, splashdown
- compound adjectives : red-hot, peace-loving, man-made, middle-aged
- compound verbs : to whitewash, to carpet- bomb, to streamline
- compound adverbs : whole-heartedly, shamefacedly, self-confidently
- compound prepositions : onto, into, hereafter
+ According to the type of composition
- compounds formed by juxtaposition : backache, heart-broken, railroad
- compounds formed by morphological means (with an infix}: spokesman, Affo- Asian, speedometer.
- compounds formed by syntactical means:
(word group —> compound ): up-to-date, forget-me-not, cash-and-carry
- compounds formed by morphological and syntactical means :
kind-hearted : with a kind heart
blue-eyed : with blue eyes
teenager : a person in his teens
+ According to the relation between components
- Coordinative components (both are independent) :socio- economical, brainmaster, mother-earth, parent-teacher
- Subordinative components (one component dominates over the other): wrist-watch, gate-keeper, spaceship.
b. Semantic classification
+ Non-idiomatic (morphologically motivated): The meaning of the whole can deduced from the meanings of the components : door-handle, headache, rose-bush, life-boat, bedroom, sunlight.
+ Idiomatic (non-motivated): no semantic relation between components:
nightmare, lotus-eater, lip-service, eyewash, horse-sense, monkey-business.
c. Phonetic classification:
They are reduplicative compounds which fall into three subgroups :
+ reduplicative compounds proper: hush-hush, pooh-pooh, murmur, quack-quack, puff-puff, fifty-fifty.
+ ablaut combinations: the second basic morpheme is repeated with a different vowel: sing-song, chit-chat, ding-dong, ping-pong, zip-zag, tip-top.
+ rhyme combinations: two pseudo- morphemes is joined to rhyme : walkie-talkie, willy-nilly, hotch-potch, hurry-scurry, lovey-dovey.
How to make Compound words
A compound word is formed by the juxtaposition of two or more words together to make a new one.
1. Compound nouns
a) Noun and noun b) adjective and noun
Horse-race sweetheart
Race-horse gentleman
Football midnight
Moonlight quicksilver
c) Verb and nouns d) Gerund and noun
Tell-tale looking-glass
Pickpocket dotting -paper
Stopcock reading -clamp
Railroad writing- table
e) Participle and noun. f) Verb and adverb.
Singing-bird drawback
Running-hand keepsake
Flying-machine send-off
Moving-pictures go-between
g) Adverb and verb h)preposition(or adverb) and noun
Income afternoon
Outcome forethought
Upstart upland
Offshoot inside
i,Several words together
forget-me-not
note-of-hand
stick-in-the-mud
2. Compound adjectives
a) Noun and adjective b) noun and present participle
Sky- blue money-making
Homesick man-eating
Airtight heart-rending
c) Noun and past participle d)noun and imitation of past participle
Hand-made earth-coloured
Heart-broken lion-hearted
Horse-drawn long-tongued
e) Adjective and adjective f) adjective and present participle
Ready-made ill-smelling
Red-hot sweet-smelling
High-born dull-looking
g) Adjective and past participle h) adjective and imitation of past participle
Ill-bred old-fashioned
Ill-gotten quick-eared
White-washed slow-witted
i) Adverb and present participle j) adverb and past participle
Hard-working out-spoken
Long-suffering well-worn
Ever-lasting well-known
k) Several words together
Up-to-date Up-to-the-minute Well-to-do
Hole-and-glove Hand-to-hand
3. Compound verbs
a) Noun and verb b) adjective and verb
Waylay whitewash
Typewrite safeguard
Henpeck dry-clean
c) Adverb and verb d) verb and adverb
Upset turn over
Backslide put on
Overhear switch off
4. Compound adverbs
a) Adjective and noun b) adverb and position
Midway herein
Otherwise therefore
Meantime hereabout
c) Noun and noun
sidewards Lengthways Clockwise
IV. SHORTENING
A very productive way of word building used in colloquial speech, documents and advertisements.
Types of shortening:
1. Abbreviation
a. Acronyms: words built from the initials of components
+ Monograms:
UK: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
GB: Great Britain
USA: The United States of America
UNO: United Nations Organization
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Emergency Fund
UNFPA: United Nations Fund for Population Activities
ESCAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
WHO/OMS: World Health Organization/ Organization Mondiale de la Sante'
OPEC: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
TV: television
VIP: very important person
MP: Member of Parliament, Military Police, Mounted Police
GNP: gross national product
GDP: gross domestic product
SOS: Save our souls
POW: prisoner of war
MIA; missing -in-action
GPO: General Post Office
GIs, GI's: government issues, US soldiers
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
VOA: Voice of America
RAF: Royal Air Force
USAF; United States Air Force
SALT: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
F: Fahrenheit
C: Celsius, centigrade
41BC: the year 41 before Christ
AD185: (L. Anno Domini) in the year 185 of the Christian era
H: hydrogen
O: oxygen
Cl: Chlorine
Na: (L. natrium) sodium
etc.: etcetera; and so on
i.e.: (L. id est) that is (to say)
eg. (L. exempli gratia) for example
ibid. ( L. ibidem) in the same book, chapter, page, etc. quoted before
op.cit. (L. opere citato) in the work cited
et al. (L. et alii) and others
viz. (L. videlicet) that is, namely
Nos. : numbers
c/o: care of
v/vs: versus
w/o: without
am: (L. ante meridiem) before noon
pm: (L. post meridiem) after noon
h: hour
min: minute
sec:second
ml: millilitre
kg: kilogramme
cc: cubic centimetre; chapters
pp: pages, past participle
ll: lines
ff: following (pages, lines, etc.)
nn: notes
cf: compare
R.S.V.P./ r.s.v.p.: (Fr. Reppondez s'il vous plait) please reply
COD/c.o.d.: cash on delivery
f.o.b.: free on board
Co.: company
Corp.: corporation
Inc. included, including, incorporated
Ltd.: limited fax (facsimile)
BA: Bachelor of Arts
BSc: Bachelor of Science
MA: Master of Arts
MSc: Master of Science
Litt.B.: Bachelor of Letters, Bachelor of Literature
MBA's: Master of Business Administration
Ph.D.: Doctor of Philosophy
MFA: Master of Fine Arts
FDR: Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945) 32nd US President
JFK: John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-1963) 35th US President
I.O.U: I owe you
Jeep: general purpose car
Radar: radio detection and ranging
Laser: light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Sonar: sound navigation and ranging
Scuba: self-contained under-water breathing apparatus
+ Homonymy-based acronyms: I.O.U
b. Clipping
+initial: car (motor car), plane (air plane), phone (telephone), bus(omnibus) drome (airdrome).
+ final: exam(examination), lab(laboratory), prof (professor), doc(document), ad (advertisement), ref(reference, referee, refund, reformer),vet (veteran, veterinarian),pop
popular), prefab(prefabricated building materials), fig (figures, figurative), fan(fanatic), veg (vegetarian), gym(gymnastics), bull(bulletin), str(street), sec(second), h(hour), min(minute), Co(Company), Corp(Corporation), Inc.(Incorporated) , incl(included, inclusive), repoff (representative office), Lat(Latin), Gr(Greek), BrE(British English), AmE(American English); Jan(January), Feb(February), Nov (November) ; Hon(Honorable), Rev. (Reverend), rev.(revenue)Sen-(Senator, senior), Jr.(junior), Esq.(Esquire)
+ inito-final: fridge( refrigerator), flu(influenza), tec(detective).
+medial: maths(mathematics), specs(spectacles), V-day(Victory Day), H-bomb(Hydrogen bomb), fancy(fantacy), Mr.(Mister), Mrs., Mmes. Ms.(Messrs, Messieurs), Dr(Doctor), St(Saint), Rd(Road), ma'am(madam), sec'y(secretary), ass'n (association), dep't (department), agcy(agency), ltd.(limited)
+ elliptic-conversational: sit-down(demonstration), pop(popular music), perm(permanent wave, prelim(preliminary examination), coed(coeducational school or college), pram(perambulator), demob(demobilization).
2. Blending: parts of two words merge into a new word: brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog( smoke+fog), telecast(tele-broadcast), medicare ( medical care),telex (telegramme express), motel (motorists' hotel), transreceiver (transmitter-receiver), fruice (fruit juice)
V. CONVERSION
Process of coining a new word in a different part of speech without adding any element (zero derivation). Reason : lack of affixes
Types of conversion :
1. Substantivation of adjectives : (adj n) and verbs ( v n)
- a native , a female, a relative, a daily, elastic, a private, an intellectual, a criminal, a conservative, a radical, a red, a grown-up.
- the blind, the rich, the happy, the good.
- a go, a find, black-out, take-over, a stand, a must, a walk, a move.
2. Adjectivization of nouns (n adj)
a silver cup, a gold ring, an iron knife.
3. Verbalization of nouns or adjectives (n/adj v)
to hand, water, land, pocket, arm, elbow, silence, skin, bottle, railroad, honeymoon, rubber-stamp, machine-gun, head, eye, finger, fish, shoulder, better, black, up, down, lower, narrow, clear, clean, cool, quiet
4. Adverbalization of adjectives (adj adv)
fast ,long, high, pretty, hard, wrong, dead
5. Partial conversion
to have a look/ talk/ smoke/ swim/ wash/ chat/ drink/ sleep/ dance/ rest
to give a ring/kick/ blow/ cry/ laugh/ whistle/jerk/jump/start/ answer
to take a ride / walk/ the lead
to make a move/dive/request/suggestion/ attempt/agreement
6. Individual coinage in conversation
'Hello, dear!' He hello-deared everybody.
I'm tired of his 'hello-dear'.
VI. SOUND AND STRESS INTERCHANGE
1. Sound interchange
food-feed, speak-speech, life-live, advice-advise, bath-bathe, belief-believe, proof-prove, loss-lose; long-length, wide-width, deep-depth, strong-strength, full- fill, sing-song, high-height.
2. Stress interchange
'accent(n) ac'cent(v) 'frequent(adj) fre'quent(v)
'conduct con'duct 'absent ab'sent
'decrease de'crease 'perfect per'fect
'object ob'ject 'concrete con'crete
However, many disyllable verbs and nouns have the same stress :
- on the first syllable : exile, figure, preface, quarrel, focus, process, program, triumph, rivet, etc...
- on the second syllable : accord, account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt, concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research, etc...
VII. SOUND IMITATION (onomatopoeia / echoism)
- Sound and movement of water : babble, blob, bubble, flush, gurgle, gush, splash, etc...
- Sound and movement of things :bang, boom, bump, clash, crash, clink, hum, rattle, rustle, smack, thud, tinkle, whack, whick, whip, etc...
- Sound expressing human feelings : babble, chatter, coe, jabber, giggle, grumble, grunt, hum, murmur, mutter, smack, whine, whisper, titter, etc...
Sound produced by animals, birds, insects:
bee-buzz, hum tiger-roar wild goose-honk
frog - croak dog- bark, woof cock- crow
crow-croak cat-mew, purr hen-cackle
snake-hiss mouse-squeak cow/ox-moo
bird-twitter, chirp pig-squeak, grunt buffalo-snort
wolf- howl duck - quack horse- neigh
lion- roar goose- honk mosquitoes-buzz
monkey-jabber
VIII. BACK FORMATION/ BACK DERIVATION:
Building of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed affix from the existing word:
beggar to beg house-breaking to house-break
baby-sister to baby-sit house-keeping to house-keep
editor to edit tape-recorder to tape-record
escalator to escalate trouble-shooter to trouble-shoot
brainwashing to brainwash window-shopping to window-shop
air-conditioner to air-condition
More exercises on word formation
I. Rewrite the following sentences below forming a compound adjective from the underlined words.
1. Then entered a man with a pale face
2. She has just bought a pair of gloves knitted by hand
3. He went hunting but returned with his hand empty
4. They have just invented a material proof against fire
5. The man was proved to be a murderer thirsty for blood
6. He behaves like a man with a mind of a child
7. The crow was stricken with panic by the storm
8. She felt sick from the sea travel as she was on the voyage for the first time
9. The southern off shore waters were found rich of oil
10. Their teacher was a man with kind heart
11. She was wearing shoes with high heels
12. This coat in expensive because it is proof against bullet
13. He only works part of the time
14. This is a piece of work that consumes a lot of time.
15. Suddenly appeared a beautiful girl with curly hair.
II. Explain the meaning of the underlined words.
1. The clerk was eyeing him expectantly.
2. An aggressive man battled his way to Stout's side
3. How on earth do you remember to milk the cows ?
4. Restaurants in all large cities have their ups and downs.
5. Ten minutes later I was speeding along in the direction of Cape Town
6. "A man could be very happy in a home like this if he didn't have to poison his days with work,"said Jimmy.
7. The desk clerk handed me the key.
8, The upshot seemed to be that I was left to face life with the sum of $ 124
9, My seat was in the middle of the row .I couldn't leave without inconveniencing a great many people , so I remained.
10, Under the cover of that protective din he was able to toy with a steaming dish which his waiter had brought.
III. Replace the underlined words by one word.
1. He was nominated to be at the head of the army.
2. She wanted to be a star in a new film
3. They decided to lay the resolution on the table
4. They put up prices as inflation increased.
5. She turned a cold shoulder on him.
Word Forms
Fill each space in the sentences below with the correct form of the word in bold print above it.
E.g. decide
(a) We must come to a …….. very soon.
(b) We beat them ……….. . We won 7-0.
(c) He can never make up his mind. He's very ……….
Answers: (a) decision (b) decisively (c) indecisive
1 beauty
(a) She is very ………….
(b) She's training to be a ………….
(c) They're going to…………… the town with more trees and parks.
2 pay
(a) To buy this car I made a monthly ………….of $280 for two years.
(b) Please make your cheque ………….. to John Watson.
(c) The person a cheque is made out to is called the …………..
3 receive
(a) She works as a ………… at a hotel in Scotland.
(b)' Ask for a ………………when you buy something, in case you need to return it.
(c) I made several suggestions to improve production, but the management was not very ……………… to my ideas.
4 hero
(a) He received a medal for his ………………..
(b) They fought …………. in the war.
(c) She was described as a……………..
5 produce
(a) …………… of the new sports car has been halted by a strike.
(b) China is one of the world's leading …………….. of rice.
(c) I'm afraid the talks were totally…… . We didn't reach agreement on anything.
6 explain
(a) An …………….. leaflet is given to all purchasers of the machine.
(b) His disappearance is very strange, in fact quite …………………. .
(c) I think you owe me an ……………….. for your behaviour.
7 compare
(a) This is ……………… better than that. In fact, there is really no……………….. .
(b) Scientists have made ………………. tests on the new drugs.
8 advise
(a) Until the situation has settled down, it is ………………… to travel to that country.
(b) The government set up an ……………… body on 'he upc of drugs in sport.
(c) I doubt the …………of drinking alcohol while undergoing that medical treatment.
9 admire
a) She was a pleasant, attractive girl, always surrounded by ………………...
(h) I am full of ……………… for what she has achieved.
(c) I approves of him wholeheartedly. He is an ………………… man.
10 stable
(a) To ……………… the boat in rough sea, we redistributed the weight.
(b) Between 1860 and 1900 the country had a number of revolutions and uprisings. It was a time of great …………………… .
(c) The exchange rate is going up and down dramatically. It's very …… at the moment.
11 economy
(a) We're spending too much. We must …………………...
(b) This car uses a lot of petrol. It's terribly ……………………..
(c) The Chancellor (Minister of Finance) is responsible for ………………….. affairs.
12 reside
(a) Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official ……………………. in London.
(b) There's no industry or entertainment here. It's a …………………….. district.
(c) All ………………….. of the neighbouring houses were warned of the gas leak.
13 comfort
(a) In that tense situation I found the good news very ………………………
(b) I felt rather ……., so I put a soft cushion behind me.
(c) She sat in terrible ………………….. on the hard chair for over an hour
14 dead
(a) The increasing number of ….. in traffic accidents is alarming.
(b) Be careful! That's a ………….. poison!
(c) The doctor gave him an injection to ………….. the pain.
15 demonstrate
(a) The ………………… marched through the streets chanting slogans
(b) Grandfather rarely showed the affection he felt for his family. He was a very …………………. person.
(c) What you say is ……………….. false. Let me show you the facts.
16 imitate
(a) The bag is made of …………………. leather.
(b) Small children are very …………… in their behaviour. They just copy what they see.
(c) His acting style is …………………. No one can copy him.
17 argue
(a) She had an ……………….. with her husband last night.
(b) He's s very bad-tempered, ……………………. chap. He's always quarrelling
(c) She is ……………….. the finest pianist in the world.
18 repeat
(a) He lost his temper and used disgusting, ………………… language.
(b) In this essay you've said the same thing several times. It's very ………………….
(c) I hope there will be no …………….. of this shocking behaviour.
19 fall
(a) She is very efficient and ………polite to the customers.
(b) He considered himself a……….. He had succeeded in nothing.
(c) It was difficult to see much in the ……………….. light.
20 courage
(a) His friends tried to ………………… him from attempting the dangerous climb.
(b) She ………………… stood in the way of the escaping robbers.
(c) His parents gave him a lot of …………………… in his studies.
21 real
(a) I think it's a bit ……………….. to hope that world peace can be gained so easily.
(b) He spends all his time in romantic daydreams. He's lost touch with ……………….
(c) Ladies and gentlemen, I am a ……………. and I think we must face facts.
22 false
(a) She was accused of ………………….. the financial accounts.
(b) It is a ………………. to say he did it when you know he didn’t.
(c) The ………………….. of his argument was obvious to everyone.
23 prophesy
(a) I am not a ___ and I would not like to make a …………. on whether the world can survive this age of nuclear weapons.
(b) What he wrote in 1930 was ………… . Much of what he described has come true.
24 describe
(a) The damage caused by the earthquake cannot be imagined. It was ………………...
(b) The teacher asked them to write a ………… passage about their home towns.
(c) The witness was able to give a full ………………….. of the wanted man.
25 friend
(a) The ………………… between the two soon developed into love.
(b) In London she was ……………………by a rich woman who looked after her and helped her.
(c) The desert is a dangerous, ……………………. place.
26 sense
(a) He felt a strange, painful …………………… in his back.
(b) Even the most …………………… person ought to appreciate the beauty of this music.
(c) What an idiotic, ……………………. thing to do!
27 famous
(a) The ………………….. of the Beatles soon spread outside Britain.
(b) The day of the massacre will go down in history as a terrible, ……………. day. It was a day of …………………………….
28 defend
(a) I just want to ask you a few ordinary questions, so why don't you relax? Why are you so ……………………?
(b) The government's policy on arms is shocking. It is quite …………..
(c) We must do all we can for the ……………….. of this nation against possible attack
29 agree
(a) What an unpleasant, ………… old woman she is!
(b) We finally reached ………………….. on the matter at midnight.
(c) I liked the place. I found the people, the weather and the food very …………..
30 possess
(a) In his will he left all his money and ………………….. to his wife.
(b) She was a very ……………… mother. She gave her son very little freedom.
(c) The actor playing the main part should be the ………………. of a very good voice, good looks and a very strong physique.
31 different
(a) I'm afraid I have to …………………. . I don't agree with you at all.
(b) Politeness is one thing. Real kindness is another. You must learn to …………. between the two.
(c) We get along pretty well, although of course we have our ……………….. from time to tine.
32 active
(a) The firm maintained that the strike was organized by a group of political …………...
(b) The fire-prevention system is ……………… by any small increase in temperature.
(c) It is quite safe to go near the volcano. It has been ……………… for years.
33 form
(a) It is especially important for children to have love and affection in their ……….. years.
(b) The slight ……….. in his left hand was corrected by surgery.
(c) The police are considering the ……………….. of a new anti-drugs unit.
34 compel
(a) Military service is no longer .............. in Britain
(b) Membership of the Students' Club is entirely voluntary. There is no ………… whatsoever.
(c) All staff should attend the meeting. Only the most ……… reasons for absence will be accepted.
35 enthusiasm
(a) They threw themselves ………… into the new project
(b) He's a real golf …………… . He loves the game
(cj They didn't really ………… over my idea. In fact there was some opposition.
36 create
(a) lan Fleming, the ………... of James Bond, died in 1964.
(b) Although she is very able technically, she isn't …… enough forthis kind of work.
(c) The ………... of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization took place in1949.
37 necessary
(a) We regret that the present economic difficulties will ………….a reduction in our work force.
(b) I sympathize with his point of view, but I don't always…… agree with him,
(c) He lives very simply, with just the basic ........ of life,
38 destroy
(a) The control centre is deep underground and completely ……….except by a direct hit from a nuclear missile.
(b) War plans include the immediate ………….... of all enemy military bases.
(c) His criticism of my work was entirely ………... There was nothing useful or constructive in it at all.
39 manage
(a) Talks between workers and ……………… have broken down and a strike now seems unavoidable.
(b) The boy was very violent and his parents found him …………………..
(c) To improve his qualifications he's taking a course in …………………. skills.
40 believe
(a) It was an incredible story, quite …………………...
(b) She is a person of very strong religious ………………………...
(c) His explanation was obviously false and the judge made no attempt to hide his …….
CONVERSION
1. Explain the meanings of the underlined nouns
1. He is a liberal. 2. He is such a dear. 3. We are all equals. 4. You needn't go into particulars of the case. 5. There are two large stands for paper in the room . 6. It was always a must with him. 7. The night watch rushed to his help. 8. She couldn't turn the switch. 9. The station is half-an-hour's walk from our house. 10. You are still worrying yourself with stupid ifs and wheres.
2. Express the following in one word :
to become/make quiet to become/ make dull to become pale
to make empty to make tame
3. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs:
1- He cleaned the suit. 2. The bright light blinded him. 3. The trees began to thin out. 4. Their methods were bettered. 5. She busied herself with papers.
4. Express the following in one word :
1. to strike with a hammer ; 2. to stir with a spoon ; 3. to fasten something with buttons 4. to mark with a brand; 5. to cover something with sand.
5. Explain the meaning of the underlined verbs :
a. to anger one's mother; to chair a meeting; to book a passenger; to elbow one's way; to head a delegation
b. She upped and threw a teapot at him. He upped and awayed to London. 3. He had never outed before. 4. They downed the tools. 5. The boy downed his drink.
6. Form partial conversion with the following verbs, using the verbs 'to have', 'to take', "to give', 'to make'
to smile ........................ to drink ...............................
to kiss............................... to attempt.............................
to breathe ....................... to sleep .…………………..
to advice .......................... to request…………………
to support...................... to suggest…………………
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